Horticulture

Microsatellite markers used in this study were particularly successful in determining genetic differentiation in A. cervicornis colonies located within reef patches in scales smaller than 2 km2. Genetic differentiation in corals between reefs separated by a few kilometers is generally not significant, except when introgression of alleles is observed . Such small-scale structure was recently evidenced in A. cervicornis using spatial auto correlation of nuclear and mt DNA data . Here, we also evidenced a similar small-scale structure suggesting that remnant A. cervicornis wild populations around Culebrita Island and Los Corchos reef system have a high genetic diversity per unit of area and can provide genetically diverse propagules for coral farming and reef rehabilitation efforts. Further, this suggests that high genetic diversity could be rapidly achieved collecting source fragments from relatively small spatial scales.This study also confirmed that the original phenotypic pre-selection of wild coral samples for coral farming using low-tech traditional field identification of coral genetic clones by simple observation and comparison of source fragments showed a 90% coincidence with different genetic identity as confirmed through complex high-tech laboratory testing.

Therefore,ebb and flow tray experienced coral farmers can very certainly have the ability to select in the field different genetic clones within relative small spatial scales without having to conduct expensive state-of the-art genetic studies. This finding is very important as it validates traditional, low-tech, community-based methods for selecting coral clones in the field which will continue to be used in remote islands and in traditionally underserved communities which lack resources and high-tech tools. Extreme rainfall events and storm-associated rainfall, in combination with poor land uses, represented the most significant environmental threat to coral farming success in this study. It is paramount to consider the long-term environmental history of sites selected for coral farming and that of adjacent lands and watersheds during the planning stage of any proposed coral farming project. In our particular case, selected sites showed since 2003outstanding environmental conditions in support of successful coral farming.

But since 2011, there has been a major burst of tourism activities at BTA that has propelled increased traffic through a small local road parallel to the beach, resulting in an increased number of visitors,ebb and flow trays multiple recreational activities , and from 100 to 250 visitors per day. This has also resulted in increased deforestation of land adjacent to the existing road for unpaved parking and areas for turning around public buses.There has been also a recent increase in deforestation of steep slopes at PME for the construction of access roads to private properties adjacent to the shoreline, which has resulted in increased turbid runoff pulses. Areas that have undergone significant alterations in land use patterns or that have undergone significant construction activities may not be suitable sites for coral farming projects as local watersheds can be largely vulnerable to majorrun off events and erosion during extreme rainfall episodes. Extreme localized rainfall events have become a common phenomenon across regional to global scales over the last century, and particularly across the Caribbean , as a typical manifestation of extreme weather events associated to increasing climate change impacts.

Major variation in large-scale rainfall patterns  and sea surface warming trends across the region have largely been associated to El Niño Southern Oscillation  dynamics. There has also been a trend of increasing rainfall extremes associated to tropical storm and hurricane impacts, which may result in localized monthly rainfall anomalies of +150% or higher , similar to extremes documented in this study. But the lack of long-term weather monitoring data and the lack of functional monitoring stations networks across multiple locations such as Culebra Island often result in weak spatial and temporal resolution of weather patterns on local scales, and in common failure to document impacts by extreme events. The observed pattern of extreme rainfall impacts through this study has largely coincided with recent trends of increasing SST across the northeastern Caribbean and mid-Atlantic regions.

Data were analyzed using content analysis. This technique was employed to analyze data collected during the face-to-face interviews and documents review.Furthermore, a SWOT analysis was used to find out factors that may promote of hinder the CBT in the Nyamasheke District. If you try to compare the cost of coffee production and benefits the farmers get in this district, famers are not getting their return on investment made in their activities. Both farmers who participated to this study indicated that coffee farming is really not profitable. When they were asked about the cause of the loss in coffee business, respondents were divided in their views regarding the perceived causes. Two respondents revealed that the cost of production make the coffee business less profitable.

“In fact, mobile vertical farm when I look at the work a coffee farmer does in coffee production, and look at what he gets in return, in reality the money a farmer earns is not repaying the farmer’s investment within production period” . Two respondents disagreed with the previous respondents regarding the cause of the loss incurred by farmers. In their views, the profitability in coffee business depends on the efforts the farmer put in his/her activities. If the famer is motivated and invest enough time and money in his/her farm, the yield would be good. “The income is not good enough, but it depends on how well the coffee is taken care of. The well cared for coffee, produces a satisfactory yield” .Another factor which makes coffee business unprofitable is unstable price of coffee cherries. According to our respondents, the price goes higher or low and farmers has no influence over it. Sometimes the price is one hundred and ten,and sometimes the price is two hundred or more.

When it rises to about three hundred and fifty, where the farmer can take care of the coffee and make a profit.“You see there is a time when at least they give us about three hundred francs per kilo, plus ten to be able to deliver it to the factory. That time the farmer was able to earn a living wage, and then he was able to make a living” . Respondents were asked to indicate another business that could be introduced in the area to support people involved in the coffee business. Surprisingly,among all suggestions given by our respondents, none of them was related to tourism. However,vertical farming racks past researchers have revealed the role of agri-tourism entrepreneurship development in agriculture sector. Khanal & Shrestha asserted that agri-tourism is one of the most crucial parameters to improve the nation’s economy of a country like Nepal, where major occupation was farming and having lots of potential tourist destination hubs. Rural areas where agri-tourismis exercised became the places where all elements of local sustainable development collected. Agri-tourism authorized new businesses and jobs on the local level. It also acted on the policy making system of the locality; forcing it indirectly to find sources of financing for achieving objectives.

It also expanded the farmer’s income . Coffee Washing Station managers were asked to indicate the possible benefits of a coffee-based tourism, where someone would come and be introduced to coffee farming, be explained the process from coffee planting to coffee harvest, then be shown how coffee is processed and he pay for it, as it is done in other countries.All agreed that the CBT has the potential to contribute positively to their business and indicated their expectation. Some of benefits identified are the following:“motivating coffee farmers to improve their activities, to improve the coffee farmers’ livelihood, and boosting coffee industry”.Respondents indicated that if CBT is introduced in their area will be welcomed.They expect that it will motivation to coffee farmers to improve their activities, as its benefits will be extended to everybody in the coffee industry.Furthermore, the start-up of coffee-based tourism would help to take care of the coffee trees, since those who would be visited would be paid, and it would inspire others who have not been visited to improving the standards of their coffee threes.On our side as a coffee washing stations, it would be interesting for us, because money farmers will get from tourism activities would motivate them to take care of their coffee.

Diseases were named according to their symptoms.Vaccination services were provided by Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development of the district at seven clinics. In addition, farmers use modern drugs either from government clinics or open markets and treat their animals themselves.Some farmers also claimed that veterinary officers were called to treat their sick animals. The most extensively used drug in the area was oxytetracycline and locally known as lesh lesh. Likewise, branding was applied when animals get sick and for identification purpose. In the area the breed is also known as Barka/Hassan. From individual interviews,37% of sampled farmers agreed that the breed’s name “Barka” is an indicator of the breed’s origin that is Barka area from Eritrea while most  of the respondents believed that the breed’s origin could be Eritrea and Sudan.

From the focus group discussions,dutch buckets system it became obvious that Begait goat is primarily kept by Beni Amir ethnic group who lives in Eritrea and Sudan bordering Ethiopia. This observation is supported by, who documented that BeniAmir ethnic group occupies the borders between much of Eritrea’s Barka valley and eastern Sudan.Despite the exact date of immigration remains unclear, Begait goat is extensively distributed across northwestern lowlands of Ethiopia. It is estimated that >110,000 Begait goats are found in northwestern and western zones of Tigray region. Based upon the results of focus group discussions and individual interviews, population size of the breed is at increasing trend. The possible reason reported for this trend was the involvement of more farmers in Begait goat production as the breed is more prolific and resistant to drought conditions with better milk yield and meat quality. At present, Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development of Tigray region has established a ranch, at Mai Woyni kebele ,western zone of the region, for all Begait animal species aiming at conservation,breeding and improvement.

The famous methods used to acquire goats were new born, buying and inheritance with the index values of 0.390, 0.343 and 0.186, respectively . This is in good agreement with the findings of and in Uganda. Whereas disposal was through selling,dutch buckets slaughtering in holidays and death in that order.Goat marketing in the study area was traditional type. All  of the respondents reported that weighing balance is unknown for selling and/or buying animals; rather visual assessment was used to estimate body condition of animals.Hence, selling price was fixed by negotiation between sellers and buyers.This result agreed with many research reports from Ethiopia. The study results also indicated that higher numbers of goats are sold and better price is fetched in holidays although farmers sell goats at any time of the year depending on their need for money. Goat owners sold their goats primarily for purchasing food items, health expenses, farm input expenses , labor expenses , school expenses for children and to pay back credit. Interviews with the sampled farmers revealed key problems constraining goat production in the area .

Water shortage, feed and grazing land shortages and inadequate veterinary services were ranked first, second and third, respectively.In line with the present findings previous studies indicated that the major problems of small ruminant farming include inadequate supply of water and pasture mainly in the dry season and problems arising from inadequate veterinary services and infrastructure. Fur farming first appeared in Greece around 50 years ago in the prefectures of Kastoria and Kozani with the main processing centers for livestock products located in the cities of Kastoria and Siatista. Fur processing companies primarily used and still use imported raw material with only a small quantity produced in the area where fur-bearing animals are bred. The last 20 – 30 years has seen effort focused on increasing the domestic production of fur with the prospect of substituting the import of furs at least in part and making the industry more competitive. As such, the aspiration is to raise at least 50,000 breeding animals.As a means of improving economic efficiency, vertical small and medium-sized processing companies which incorporated the breeding and marketing of furskins were created. Thus, and given that there were similar farms in other countries, the first “bold and pioneering craftsmen” established the first fur farms around the prefectures.

The link between technology and youth farming was statistically significant, implying that the outcome in the sample can also be found in the general populace. Furthermore,the study observed that motivation guides the cognitive behavior of the youth towards farming and maintains them by establishing the driving force associated with the benefit of being a young farmer in the region. The analysis further denotes that motivation can also indirectly affect youth farming via economic factors allied with the youth.Also, economic factor was identified to have an optimal determinant on youth farming acceptance, although the data in this study proves otherwise at the 95% confidence level. Government Policies such as policy for better remuneration,a policy of stability of farming employment and retirement benefits,government subsidies on agricultural tools and machinery, flood and drain tray and the like contributed to the statistically significant figures obtained during the analysis.

The study observed that government policies serve as a direct link to influence the youth towards farming while also providing the platform for technology application to achieve the same objective. The study advances our understanding of pertinent factors that influence the youth’s adoption of agriculture by establishing the direct theoretical link from these factors. The study recommends that government and stakeholders lay down efficient and effective policies to motivate the young generation of today toward youth farming for sustainability and economic development.Finally, this present study as adding to literature has some limitations which provide the potential arena for future research. First, this research was conducted on youths in the West African region of Ghana, therefore, future research is encouraged to extend to other countries in the Sub-Saharan Africa with similar interest to boost agricultural farming among the youth.

Second, the focus of this study only involved only participants at a youthful age. Extending the study to include participants of older generation may give more insight into understanding how the gap between the young and old generation keeps widening or closing in terms of the interest to go into agriculture farming is suggested for future research. Third, the present study is limited in volume and variety of data obtained from participants. A variety of factors have inherent attributes to agricultural farming, hence further study to incorporate big data and its analytics is desired.Including additional variables ad applying the right analytics will throw more light on youth involvement in agricultural farming and increase precision on information gathered. Because of its contribution to the socio-economic development of rural Uganda in both food security and income generation, nft hydroponic especially, among women and other disadvantaged groups, smallholder dairy production system has received considerable support from the Government of Uganda as well as non-government organizations.

Moreover, by functioning as a store of wealth and supplying manure for crop production , dairy cattle fit very well in integrated crop-livestock systems. In Uganda, dairy cattle play a key role in the nutrition,of most households with per capita milk consumption of about 58 litres  against FAO requirement of 200 litresper person per year . While annual average milk yield per cow per lactation per year of 305 days in developed countries can go above 8000 kg, less than 2000 kg is obtainable from pure dairy breeds, 1000 from cross breeds and 500 kg from indigenous cows in Uganda . These statistics are obviously distressing in light of the rapidly growing human population at a rate of 3.2% annually . In  it is singled out that feed scarcity leads to poor nutrition which is a key constraint holding down production efficiency and health of the dairy cow on smallholder dairy farms in Lake Victoria Agro-ecological Zone . Poor nutrition of dairy cattle is exaggerated by drought induced feed scarcity attributed partly to change in climate and demographics. As human population increases demand for milk also increases, crop production expands, availability of land for forage production decreases contributing towards dairy cattle feed scarcity. With projected increase in demand for milk,coupled with declining land size for forage production due to demographic pressure, it seems inevitable for farmers to embrace alternative feed resources.

There is an urgent need for innovative thinking and methods to make new attempts for experiential activities. The new design method of experiential activities has become the new educational significance of leisure agriculture.Therefore, this study will explore the new direction of leisure farm experience activity design from the perspective of leisure farm operators, analyze the willingness and obstacles of leisure farms to implement food education, and provide new options for agricultural administration to implement food education. Shih said that the term “food education” was a newly coined word proposed by the Japanese as early as 1896 and 1898. The work mentioned, “sports, intellectual education, and talent education are food education”. Yang  pointed out that in 1903, the Japanese village Jingxianzhai pointed out in the serial novel “Esophagus” that food education is the first among children’s moral education,vertical rack system intellectual education, sports, and food education.

Agriculture is the most crucial source of human food, and dietary activities are a part of agricultural activities.“Food and agriculture” are essentially one and two sides. Therefore, the term “food and farming education” was born .Chen  mentioned that the form of food and farming education comes from Japan’s six-level industrial policy. In order to improve the development of the rural economy, Japan implements a six-level industrial policy to strengthen the integration of agriculture, forestry and fishery production, processing and sales,and enhance the added value of agriculture; to revitalize the agricultural, fishing,and mountain villages and promote the local consumption of real estate. The demand for nutritious lunches in high schools, middle schools, and primary schools promotes the consumption of agricultural products in rural areas. A special law is established to require school nutritious lunches to use local ingredients and set goals; through dietary education, to enhance their public confidence in consuming domestic agricultural products, let the citizens feel the local natural food culture, build a cooperative model and functional relationship between producers, direct sales offices and schools, and stimulate students’ emotions about producers and food supply; to save transportation costs and contribute to the environment .

Lin aid that “food and farming education” is a broadly defined name. The concept of this social movement is established. For example, government agencies,schools, peasant associations, flood and drain table non-profit organizations, leisure farms, organic farms, and agricultural enterprises can pass through Cooperate and participate in typical development. Moreover, integrate the elements of education into business behavior, combine the concept of agricultural experience and health, promote the way of connecting with the local agricultural food network,and cooperate with environmentally friendly and organic production methods. It should be the future of agricultural product marketing—the direction of development. The original meaning of leisure farms , that is, the “Leisure” products or services it provides, must be based on “Agriculture” operation. Therefore, the development of leisure farms is different from general sightseeing and tourism type. In addition to maintaining the production function of traditional agriculture,it is also necessary to transform some agricultural resources into leisure and recreation functions based on local characteristics.

Many researchers have two different perspectives on leisure farms. First, from the perspective of agricultural management, scholar Chiang  emphasized that leisure agriculture is a type of agricultural management transformed from production or combined with the service industry. Another scholar, Lin, Chen and Wang , looked at the service industry as a leisure service industry. He believed that leisure farms consisted of farmers engaged in agricultural production activities and living in rural areas. The site, following the local terrain, climate,soil, hydrology, and other natural environments, through appropriate planning and design, engaged in the local leisure service business, and then play the local leisure function. The primary source of profit for leisure farms is not the production and sales of agricultural products or the sale of processed products, but the income from operating the service industry, which has exceeded the scope of traditional agricultural production.

In the lower portion of Mt Isarog, the most affected crops are the vegetables and rice and these are caused by both pest infestations and scarcity of water. Both rice and vegetables are water dependent and would dry up when the water is scarce. In the upland area, rice decay because the variety of rice planted those that do not need much water which the farmers generally call “hasok” (planting rice in kaingin areas).The negative impact of heavy rainfall is observed both in the upland and lowland area of Mt. Isarog which include the infestation of pests, fungi and viruses and the oversupply of water. In the lowland area, rice grows better than in the upland area but abaca, coconut and root crops are not much affected by the presence of extreme rainfall. Vegetables are seen to have negative impacts in both the upland and lowland Isarog. At this climatic condition,aeroponic tower garden system it is not good to plant vegetablese specially they are not water resistant.

Upland variety of rice does not thrive at this season but when irrigation is abundant, farmers can plant a variety of rice resistant to water. Better yield for abaca, coconuts and root crops is also expected and this is beneficial to the farmers engaged in this kind of farming. The negative impact of typhoon is not spared to all kinds of crops but it is more evident in the upland Isarog compared to that in the lowland area. Total destruction of crops means no yield and the farmers has to plant all over again or wait for the crops to recover and bear fruits as in the case of coconut.The impact of the delay onset of rainfall to crops is the upland and lowland area is lesser compared to the extreme heat. This climate imbalance results to the decaying of crops as in the case of vegetables or drying of crops as in the case of root crops. The delay supply of rainwater results in destruction of leaves, poor or slow growth of crops as in the case of vegetables.

It can be noted that cassava grows healthy and therefore resilient at this climatic condition. Other root crops are not resilient particularly the “camote ” which exhibit drying,dutch buckets for sale decaying and defective tubers. Crops like abaca and coconut are not affected by this climate change.Generally, the upland Isarog is affected during the delay onset of rainfall but the negative impact is more felt in the lowland area because of the inability of the farmers to plant. Farmers in the upland area are less affected but waiting for the crops to recover is something that they should be prepared of and root crops and vegetable farming is an alternative source of income. The lowland farmers are more favorably affected than the upland farmers because rain is available.Growing crops in the upland Isarog watershed area is favorable during the early onset of rain because this allows the farmers to plant their crops earlier. Coconuts and abaca are not also adversely affected. Farmers adapt to this climate change by planting crops that are resilient to heat or they can use intercropping.

On Climate Change through trainings and similar activities, education provides the farmers basic understanding of various climatic events that strikes in their locality and develop their knowledge on climate variability. Farmers’ education can also help farmers on proper crop selection and use of various agri-technological approaches suitable to extreme weather conditions. Farmers can also be given some alternative livelihood trainings so that while they wait for the next cropping season, they have other sources of income. Farmers can also be taught with proper pest and farm management in different climatic conditions. Farmers always experience losses whenever a calamity strikes and it is at this moment that farmers needed the support of the government through crop insurance, micro-financing and the like so that they will not be indebted so much to the middlemen who charges a large percentage of their produce and who have no choice but to sell their products to these middlemen at a much lower cost. To encourage farmers to avail of crop insurance, it can be given at lower cost and micro-financing at lower interest. Uganda has been ranked from the top five in the 2000s to current top ten banana-producing countries . The decline in banana production has been attributed majorly to decline in soil productivity .

The western Sudan is also suffered from low soil fertility, especially in sandy soil. This type of soil has a higher requirement for water, mainly in the production of millet crops. Meanwhile, negative impacts and the adjustment of liberalization policies that hit the rural areas hard also influenced access to food for the majority of the population. The marketing policy constitutes a concern for the farmers; therefore, a lack of clear marketing price policies for agriculture and animal production are also affected food security. This resulted in higher costs of production,which directly led to diminishing the net returns from different farming activities . Moreover, nft hydroponic system the inequality and lack of income has a greater impact on the purchasing power of the people. North Kordofan State is recognized as a vulnerable food deficit area. The farmers and agro-pastoral herders are subjected to food insecurity since their agricultural production does not meet all their food consumption needs.

The situation of food security is ever-changing and unpredictable among the seasons and usually depends on the amount of food and cash crops produced at the farm level.The trend of food security can be described through the percentage change between consumption and production of cereal food from season 1995/96 to 2006/07. Figure 9 views the surplus and/or deficit in cereal foods based on the amount of both production and consumption. The figure reveals that a higher food deficit has been occurring since the end of the last decade, when consumption exceeded production. This mostly emerged from a decrease in production as a consequence of poor soil fertility,inadequate rainfall, and drought. Therefore, the percentage change between consumption and production was negative. Only in season 2005/2006, there was a food surplus, which has been shown by the positive change between food consumption and production as shown in Figure 9.

The sedentary farmers in North Kordofan State faced both shortage in food availability because of high fluctuations in the production due to unfavorable conditions and also severe inaccessibility to food because of acute, hydroponic nft system widespread poverty and limited off-farm income opportunities as reported by .The food deficit that has been occurring year after year affected about 74% of the total population. This population mostly lived in the Sheikan locality, and they suffered from chronic food deficit. They were distributed as 64.6% and 82.3% in the Southern and Northern parts of the locality, respectively. In contrast, about 49% of the population in the state was regarded as food insecure in the year 2006 . The average estimated food deficiency for food insecure households overall in the state was approximately 16.4%. However, this figure varied from 5% to 25% among the localities . Various activities have been conducted in North Kordofan State to reduce the food gap and food insecurity.Many NGOs in the region were delivered relief food as free food distribution for the most vulnerable groups.

This emergency food program seeks to secure food through food aid and relief during drought or bad seasons.This activity is usually conducted via coordination between governmental organizations (GOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Recently, there have been special programs implemented by the World Food Program (WFP) to improve the food insecurity situation. These programs are the School Feeding Program (SFP)and Food for Work (FFW). Unfortunately, despite the efforts made by these programs to alleviate food insecurity,there is only slight improvement. This is predominantly due to a lack of a good coordination between the government and international donors. Subsequently, many programs targeting the reduction of food insecurity have not successfully achieved their objectives. One of the most important activities for realizing food security in North Kordofan State is School Feeding Program(SFP). This program was implemented via an agreement between government representatives by the State Ministry of Education (SMOE), School Feeding Department (SFD), and the WFP. The agreement defined the terms and conditions under which the SMOE and SFD would implement the food distribution on behalf of WFP.

All pesticide residues should be immediately removed from the skin with soap and water when spills and leaks occur. The use of hand sprinkling makes the farmers more prone to spill the pesticide with resulting skin exposure and inhalation. Improved and affordable equipment are especially needed in tropical regions of Africa where many farmers do not have adequate equipment or must use knapsack sprayer for a longer periods without maintenance or replacement.The method of pesticide application and practices which are used by most Buea farmers exposes them not only to acute effects of pesticide poisoning but to the long term effects of neurological damage and cancer.

Many of the farmers mixed and sprayed pesticides injudiciously using knapsack sprayer cups and teas spoons without accurate measurements leading to an incorrect estimation of pesticide strength and overdosing of the chemicals. Although fungicide usage is said to have little effects on humans, studies have shown that there is high risk of cancer with long term use of mancozed of the carbamate chemical group .The farmer’s health risks were further increased because farmers were not aware of the need to monitor wind directions when spraying and even smoked while spraying. Less than one-fourth of farmers said they used PPE(long sleeved shirts, long pants, boots or closed toed shoes, gloves, masks, and a hat), with the majority (76.4%)of farmers wearing no or partial PPE. These exposures increase the farmer’s risk of pesticide poisoning and possible health effects, ebb flow tray which could explain why 85.3% of farmers reported signs and symptoms of acute pesticide poisoning after spraying.In the Ivory Coast, farmers avoided medical care on the assumption that signs and symptoms of pesticides poisoning are a normal phenomenon and need no medical attention .

This attitude further broadens the risk of long term effects of pesticides poisoning. Although most of the Buea farmers assumed their symptoms were from pesticide use, they thought that the symptoms were expected effects of pesticides use and should be accepted.Some farmers denied that these symptoms could be due to pesticide use, but attributed the symptoms to something other than pesticide exposure.Many Buea farmers said they discarded the pesticides containers on the farm. This was confirmed at the farm visits where many empty pesticide containers could be seen in clusters as one walked in the fields. The disposal of used containers was further complicated, because most of the farms are located along streams which were easier to use to wash the sprayers and to discard the used water. Because this is a mountainous terrain, most of this water runs off and the containers are swept away by rain into the streams and rivers which empty into the Atlantic Ocean. There is a potential pollution threat to the communities along the water way and to non-targeted fauna and flora which has a potential of destabilizing the food chain and the ecosystem at large.

Further studies are needed to evaluate this possibility in order to put in place adequate measures to control such practices.The availability of potable water remains a health concern throughout Cameroon in both urban and rural areas.Although the Buea municipality does have a potable water system, most farmers use it only for drinking water and use the streams for their domestic activities in order to limit water bills. The impact of this practice upon the water sources (streams) is concerning, for both the soil and the water may be affected.After using pesticides, the farmers do observe a decrease in pests and disease. The pesticide venders emphasize this benefit and make pesticides more financially attractive by distributing pesticides in smaller quantities of unlabelled containers. Labeling information is essential to making specific instructions for pesticide use available to all pesticide users. This practice does not encourage farmers to investigate other suitable non-chemical and environmental friendly methods that are equally inexpensive but offer good control of pests.

Yam is the sole crop that performs very well on a forest land or ondense wooded savanna newly converted to agriculture. Thus, the farmer starts the farm by cropping yam in the first year. The other food crops , and the cash crops, are cultivated either in the second, third,or forth year after the land is set to farm. For these reasons, the land area allocated annually for yam planting has constituted the proxy in this study of deforestation.Another consideration is that the vegetation includes both the wooded savanna and the forest and because these two vegetation cover types may coexist in the region, as largely discussed above, the land conversion to agriculture may include also the wooded savanna. At the national level and according the 2011 Agriculture census , the population in agriculture in rural area is of 97.3% in average.

The farms of 0.5 ha in size represent 76%, 0.5 1 ha18%, 1 2 ha 5%, and finally, the farms of more than 10 ha, 1%.The variables data or the proxies necessary for the study were collected in panel for the time period from 1995 to 2015, and from the prefectures in the Central region of Togo. There are four prefectures retained for the study which are Blitta, Sotouboua, Tchamba, and Tchaoudjo. The fifth prefecture, the Plain of the Mo River, is newly created and there are no data available for the whole study time period. These data are mainly the forest data, agricultural food crop data, the cash crop data, and the socio-economic data.The forest data are secondary data compiled in a monthly basis by the prefectures.The annual reports which constitute the major sources of the data collection are normally available either in the Regional Forest Office in Sokode, vertical farming racks or at the General Secretary of the Ministry in charge of the environmental and forest resources. The variables of interest here are the wood biomass which may be categorized as fuel wood, charcoal and industrial wood production. Data on the receipts collected from various forestry activities including transport permit,cutting certificates, and also from the fines for illegal forestry operations, are available in these annual reports.

Data on crop production are also secondary data made available in most cases by the Office of Agriculture Statistics, Information and Documentation of the Ministry of Agriculture. These data are the results of periodical agricultural census. But each year the census data are updated to make available data in the yearly basis. The variables considered here are the production and the out putprices, the fertilizer quantity and price, and the pesticide quantity and price for each year. As announced above, the concerned food crops are cereals, tuber and pulses. The major important cash crop produced in the Region is the cotton, but coffee and cocoa are also cultivated under the dense forests in Blitta, the prefecture at the south most of the region. The historical data were made available for this study by New Office of Cotton Society , formally called SOTOCO. The data include the cotton production, the price, cotton pesticides used, cotton fertilizer used and their prices. The socio-economic data are provided either by the National Institute of Statistics,and Economics and Demographic Studies , or from the websites.Besides the panel data, single point data such as data on agriculture systems were obtained by question and answer with the Institute of Counseling and Support ’s agents and with individual farmer producers implicated in major crops and cotton production.

This information concerns the recent years from 2011 to 2016. The common farming practice in the area is the mix cropping, and yam is the crop that starts the rotation. Therefore we decide the annual area converted toy am planting constitutes the proxy for the vegetation loss. The analysis results are compiled in Table 2 the full model, where are reported the 20 independence variables included in the model, their Fixed models and First Difference coefficient estimates, and the resulting probabilities. We are not able to report the reduced model outputs , the national cotton pesticide cost, the national cotton price and the national minimum wage, because these independent variables do not quite explain by themselves the vegetation cover area loss .Furthermore, including the time dummy’s to capture the time effect results in the drop of eight variable coefficients from the model, and significant statistical effect for all the fifteen non-dropped independent variables. Even though the pFtest for individual time effect is significant , we are not able to provide a Robust Standard Error of the time fixed effect for the full model either. A bunch of variable coefficients are also dropped from the model.

The genus has been shown to be neither routinely investigated norconsidered under environmental and sanitary legislation.In fact,the bacterium may cause remarkable liabilities for fish farms and serious illnesses in humans. Liabilities are also associated with shelf time owing to the high concentrations of bacteria .Infection dose for Aeromonas in human beings has still to be defined. Cooking process may inactivate these bacteria; however, cross-contamination remains a threat against health, especially in the case of high-risk groups such as children,elderly people, and immune depressed individuals. This microorganism has  frequently been detected in the feces of patients with HGS-gastroenteritis .

Although Brazil has native aquaculture species with great productive and economic potential, none of them, yet, has scientific and technological information that allows the structuring of the production chain. Thus, the main challenge of national aquaculture research is to generate knowledge about genetics and breeding, reproduction, physiology, nutrition, health, production systems,slaughter, processing and the market related to these species. For this, it is essential to bring research bodies closer to the productive sector and coordinated interaction between the researchers, generating knowledge and technologies for the agents of the production chain, in an increasingly efficient manner.In this sense,stacking pot there is already research in the areas of reproduction and genetic improvement of fish, nutrition and feeding of aquaculture species with the production of more sustainable rations that minimize the environmental impact,conservation and management of fishery resources, health of aquaculture species,agro-industrial processing of fish, aquaculture production systems, effluent treatment and reuse and sustainable development of continental artisanal fishing.

Nowadays, agriculture including market gardening, is facing many challenges such as the increase in food supply and the need for agricultural production that guarantees food safety, nutritional quality and respect for the environment .Indeed, market gardening production, particularly that of tomatoes in Burkina Faso plays an important nutritional and economic role, with annual production estimated at 300,000 tons, including an export of 100,000 tons . Thus, its consumption contributes to the intakes of fibre, antioxidant compounds and minerals . The profitability of the sector requires an intensive use of phytosanitary products to ensure good physical quality of the tomato without trace of pests. Studies on some market garden sites revealed bad phytosanitary practices such as the non-respect of prescribed doses and protection and hygiene rule during treatments, and mismanagement of empty pesticide packaging .The bad use of pesticides in this intensive agricultural practice is now being questioned by research and civil society, given the negative impacts of market gardening on the environment, producers and consumers’ health. Among these risks, the bioaccumulation of trace metal elements by market gardening products, including tomatoes, can lead to serious health risks . To face this situation, groups of stakeholders have emerged and are advocating sustainable agriculture through agroecological practices and effective consideration of the harmful environmental impacts of current forms of agriculture . In Burkina Faso, the national council for organic agriculture is working to promote biological agriculture through the certification of several tomato production sites, including the agroecological school farm Béo-Neeré.

Indeed,the practice of ecological market gardening produces fruits and vegetables with better micronutrient contents compared to conventional agriculture . Moreover,the physico-chemical and nutritional characterization, particularly trace metal elements, 15N nitrogen and phosphorus isotopes contents, can be considered as an index of quality and authenticity of tomato varieties . There is no comparative study on the above-mentioned parameters of tomato between an organic  and conventional site in Burkina Faso. The present study on three varieties of tomato aims to assess the influence of biological and conventional agriculture practices on the bioaccumulation of trace metal, 15N nitrogen and phosphorus isotope in tomato. The experimental device on the 2 sites is a Block Fisher with 3 repetitions. The elementary plots, separated by 1.5 m, are made up of 4 lines,each 3 m long.